Roman Emperor Trajan

1 roman emperor

1.1 correctores: greek/roman relations
1.2 conquest of dacia
1.3 annexation of nabataea
1.4 period of peace: public buildings , festivities
1.5 devaluation of currency
1.6 alimenta
1.7 war against parthia

roman emperor

bust of trajan in 108 ad, in museum of art history in vienna, austria

on entry rome, trajan granted plebs direct gift of money. traditional donative troops, however, reduced half. there remained issue of strained relations between emperor , senate, after supposed bloodiness had marked domitian s reign , dealings curia. feigning reluctance hold power, trajan able start building consensus around him in senate. belated ceremonial entry rome in 99 notably low-key, on pliny younger elaborated.

by not openly supporting domitian s preference equestrian officers, trajan appeared conform idea (developed pliny) emperor derived legitimacy adherence traditional hierarchies , senatorial morals. therefore, point allegedly republican character of rule. in speech @ inauguration of third consulship, on 1 january 100, trajan exhorted senate share care-taking of empire him – an event later celebrated on coin. in reality, trajan did not share power in meaningful way senate, pliny admits candidly: [e]verything depends on whims of single man who, on behalf of common welfare, has taken upon himself functions , tasks . 1 of significant trends of reign encroachment on senate s sphere of authority, such decision make senatorial provinces of achaea , bythinia imperial ones in order deal inordinate spending on public works local magnates , general mismanagement of provincial affairs various proconsuls appointed senate.

in formula developed pliny, however, trajan emperor in that, himself, approved or blamed same things senate have approved or blamed. if in reality trajan autocrat, deferential behavior towards peers qualified him viewed virtuous monarch. whole idea trajan wielded autocratic power through moderatio instead of contumacia – moderation instead of insolence. in short, according ethics autocracy developed political writers of imperial roman age, trajan ruler in ruled less fear, , more acting role model, for, according pliny, men learn better examples .

eventually, trajan s popularity among peers such roman senate bestowed upon him honorific of optimus, meaning best , appears on coins 105 on. title had trajan s role benefactor, such in case of him returning confiscated property.

that trajan s ideal role conservative 1 becomes evident pliny s works orations of dio of prusa – in particular 4 orations on kingship, composed during trajan s reign. dio, greek notable , intellectual friends in high places, , possibly official friend emperor (amicus caesaris), saw trajan defender of status quo. in third kingship oration, dio describes ideal king ruling means of friendship  – that is, through patronage , network of local notables act mediators between ruled , ruler. dio s notion of being friend trajan (or other roman emperor), however, of informal arrangement, involved no formal entry of such friends roman administration - put greek-speaking elites , trajan on collision course.

the correctores: greek/roman relations

as senatorial emperor, trajan inclined choose local base of political support among members of ruling urban oligarchies. in west, meant local senatorial families own. in east, meant families of greek notables. greeks, though, had own memories of independence – and commonly acknowledged sense of cultural superiority – and, instead of seeing roman, disdained roman rule. greek oligarchies wanted rome was, above all, left in peace, allowed exert right self-government (i.e., excluded provincial government, italy) , concentrate on local interests. romans not disposed perspective greek notables shunning responsibilities in regard management of imperial affairs – primarily in failing keep common people under control, creating need roman governor intervene.

an excellent example of greek alienation personal role played dio of prusa in relationship trajan. dio described philostratus trajan s close friend, , trajan supposedly engaging publicly in conversations dio. nevertheless, greek local magnate taste costly building projects , pretensions of being important political agent rome, dio of prusa target 1 of trajan s authoritarian innovations: appointing of imperial correctores audit civic finances of technically free greek cities. main goal curb overenthusiastic spending on public works served channel ancient rivalries between neighboring cities. pliny wrote trajan, had visible consequence trail of unfinished and/or ill-kept public utilities.

competition among greek cities , ruling oligarchies marks of preeminence, titles bestowed roman emperor. such titles ordered in ranking system determined how cities outwardly treated rome. usual form such rivalries took of grandiose building plans, giving cities opportunity vie each other on extravagant, needless ... structures make show . side effect of such extravagant spending junior , less wealthy members of local oligarchies felt disinclined present fill posts local magistrates, positions involved ever-increasing personal expense.

roman authorities liked play greek cities against 1 another – something of dio of prusa aware:

[b]y public acts [the roman governors] have branded pack of fools, yes, treat children, offer children trivial things in place of things of greatest worth [...] in place of justice, in place of freedom of cities spoliation or seizure of private possessions of inhabitants, in place of refraining insulting [...] governors hand titles, , call first either word of mouth or in writing; done, may thenceforth impunity treat being last!

these same roman authorities had interest in assuring cities solvency , therefore ready collection of imperial taxes. last not least, inordinate spending on civic buildings not means achieve local superiority, means local greek elites maintain separate cultural identity – something expressed in contemporary rise of second sophistic; cultural patriotism acted kind of substitute loss of political independence, , such shunned roman authorities. trajan himself wrote pliny: these poor greeks love gymnasium ... have content 1 suits real needs .

the first known corrector charged commission deal situation of free cities , felt old method of ad hoc intervention emperor and/or proconsuls had not been enough curb pretensions of greek notables. noteworthy embassy dio s city of prusa not favorably received trajan, , had dio s chief objective, elevate prusa status of free city, independent city-state exempt paying taxes rome. eventually, dio gained prusa right become head of assize-district, conventus (meaning prusans did not have travel judged roman governor), eleutheria (freedom, in sense of full political autonomy) denied.

statue of trajan, luna marble , proconessian marble, 2nd century ad, ostia antica

eventually, fell pliny, imperial governor of bithynia in 110 ad, deal consequences of financial mess wrought dio , fellow civic officials. s established [the cities finances] in state of disorder , pliny once wrote trajan, plans unnecessary works made in collusion local contractors being identified 1 of main problems. 1 of compensatory measures proposed pliny expressed thoroughly roman conservative position: cities financial solvency depended on councilmen purses, necessary have more councilmen on local city councils. according pliny, best way achieve lower minimum age holding seat on council, making possible more sons of established oligarchical families join , contribute civic spending; seen preferable enrolling non-noble wealthy upstarts.

such increase in number of council members granted dio s city of prusa, dismay of existing councilmen felt status lowered. similar situation existed in claudiopolis, public bath built proceedings entrance fees paid supernumerary members of council, enrolled trajan s permission. also, according digest, decreed trajan when city magistrate promised achieve particular public building, incumbent on heirs complete building.

trajan ingratiated himself greek intellectual elite recalling rome many (including dio) had been exiled domitian, , returning (in process begun nerva) great deal of private property domitian had confiscated. had dealings plutarch, who, notable of delphi, seems have been favored decisions taken on behalf of home-place 1 of trajan s legates, had arbitrated boundary dispute between delphi , neighboring cities. however, clear trajan greek intellectuals , notables regarded tools local administration, , not allowed fancy in privileged position. pliny said in 1 of letters @ time, official policy greek civic elites treated according status notionally free not put on equal footing roman rulers. when city of apamea complained of audit of accounts pliny, alleging free status roman colony, trajan replied writing own wish such inspections had been ordered. concern independent local political activity seen in trajan s decision forbid nicomedia having corps of firemen ( if people assemble common purpose ... turn political society , trajan wrote pliny) in , pliny s fears excessive civic generosities local notables such distribution of money and/or gifts. same reason, judging pliny s letters can assumed trajan , aides bored alarmed claims of dio , other greek notables political influence based on saw special connection roman overlords.a revealing case-history, told pliny, tells of dio of prusa placing statue of trajan in building complex dio s wife , son buried- therefore incurring charge of treason placing emperor s statue near grave. trajan, however, dropped charge.

nevertheless, while office of corrector intended tool curb hint of independent political activity among local notables in greek cities, correctores men of highest social standing entrusted exceptional commission. post seems have been conceived partly reward senators had chosen make career solely on emperor s behalf. therefore, in reality post conceived means taming both greek notables , roman senators. must added that, although trajan wary of civic oligarchies in greek cities, admitted senate number of prominent eastern notables slated promotion during domitian s reign reserving them 1 of twenty posts open each year minor magistrates (the vigintiviri). such must case of galatian notable , leading member of greek community (according 1 inscription) gaius julius severus, descendant of several hellenistic dynasts , client kings. severus grandfather of prominent general gaius julius quadratus bassus, consul in 105. other prominent eastern senators included gaius julius alexander berenicianus, descendant of herod great, suffect consul in 116. trajan created @ least 14 new senators greek-speaking half of empire, unprecedented recruitment number opens question issue of traditionally roman character of reign, hellenism of successor hadrian. trajan s new eastern senators powerful , wealthy men more local influence , interconnected marriage, many of them not altogether new senate. on local level, among lower section of eastern propertied, alienation of greek notables , intellectuals towards roman rule, , fact romans seen such greek notables aliens, persisted after trajan s reign. interesting note 1 of trajan s senatorial creations east, athenian gaius julius antiochus epiphanes philopappos, member of royal house of commagene, left behind him funeral monument on mouseion hill later disparagingly described pausanias monument built syrian man .

conquest of dacia


trajan s column, rome

it military commander trajan best known history, particularly conquests in near east, 2 wars against dacia – the reduction client kingdom (101–102), followed actual incorporation empire of trans-danube border group of dacia – an area had troubled roman thought on decade unstable peace negotiated domitian s ministers powerful dacian king decebalus. according provisions of treaty, decebalus acknowledged rex amicus, is, client king; nevertheless, in exchange accepting client status, received generous stipend rome, being supplied technical experts. treaty seems have allowed roman troops right of passage through dacian kingdom in order attack marcomanni, quadi , sarmatians. however, senatorial opinion never forgave domitian paying seen tribute barbarian king. in addition, unlike germanic tribes, dacian kingdom organized state capable of developing alliances of own, making strategic threat , giving trajan strong motive attack it.

in may of 101, trajan launched first campaign dacian kingdom, crossing northern bank of danube , defeating dacian army @ tapae (see second battle of tapae), near iron gates of transylvania. not decisive victory, however. trajan s troops mauled in encounter, , put off further campaigning year in order regroup , reinforce army.

the following winter, king decebalus took initiative launching counter-attack across danube further downstream, supported sarmatian cavalry, forcing trajan come aid of troops in rearguard. dacians , allies repulsed after 2 battles in moesia, @ nicopolis ad istrum , adamclisi. trajan s army advanced further dacian territory, and, year later, forced decebalus submit. had renounce claim regions of kingdom, return roman runaways (most of them technical experts), , surrender war machines.

trajan returned rome in triumph , granted title dacicus.

the peace of 102 had returned decebalus condition of more or less harmless client king; however, began rearm, again harbor roman runaways, , pressure western neighbors, iazyges sarmatians, allying him. trying develop anti-roman bloc, decebalus left trajan without alternative of treating dacia protectorate, rather outright conquest. in 104 decebalus devised failed attempt on trajan s life means of roman deserters, , held prisoner trajan s legate longinus, poisoned himself while in custody. finally, in 105, decebalus undertook invasion of roman-occupied territory north of danube.

prior campaign, trajan had raised 2 entirely new legions: ii traiana – which, however, may have been posted in east, @ syrian port of laodicea – and xxx ulpia victrix, posted brigetio, in pannonia. 105, concentration of roman troops assembled in middle , lower danube amounted fourteen legions (up 9 in 101) – about half of entire roman army. after dacian wars, danube frontier permanently replace rhine main military axis of roman empire. including auxiliaries, number of roman troops engaged on both campaigns between 150,000 , 175,000, while decebalus dispose of 200,000.

following design of apollodorus of damascus, trajan ordered building of massive bridge on danube, on roman army able cross river swiftly , in numbers, send in reinforcements, in winter when river not frozen enough bear passage of party of soldiers. trajan reformed infrastructure of iron gates region of danube. commissioned either creation or enlargement of road along iron gates, carved side of gorge. additionally, trajan commissioned canal built around rapids of iron gates. evidence of comes marble slab discovered near caput bovis, site of roman fort. slab, dated year 101, commemorates building of @ least 1 canal went kasajna tributary @ least ducis pratum, embankments still visible until recently. however, placement of slab @ caput bovis suggests canal extended point or there second canal downriver of kasajna-ducis pratum one.

statue of trajan, posing in military garb, in front of amphitheater of colonia ulpia traiana in xanten archaeological park

these costly projects completed, in 105 trajan again took field. in fierce campaign seems have consisted of static warfare: dacians, devoid of maneuvering room, kept network of fortresses, romans sought systematically storm (see second dacian war). romans gradually tightened grip around decebalus stronghold in sarmizegetusa regia, took , destroyed. decebalus fled, but, when cornered roman cavalry, committed suicide. severed head, brought trajan cavalryman tiberius claudius maximus, later exhibited in rome on steps leading capitol , thrown on gemonian stairs.

trajan built new city, colonia ulpia traiana augusta dacica sarmizegetusa, on site (north of hill citadel holding previous dacian capital) although bearing same full name, sarmizegetusa. capital city conceived purely civilian administrative center , provided usual romanized administrative apparatus (decurions, aediles, etc.). urban life in roman dacia seems have been restricted roman colonists, military veterans; there no extant evidence existence in province of peregrine cities. native dacians continued live in scattered rural settlements, according own ways. in arrangement no parallels in other roman province, existing quasi-urban dacian settlements disappeared after roman conquest. number of unorganized urban settlements (vici) developed around military encampments in dacia proper - important being apulum - acknowledged cities proper after trajan s reign.

the main regional effort of urbanization concentrated trajan @ rearguard, in moesia, created new cities of nicopolis ad istrum , marcianopolis. vicus created around tropaeum traianum. garrison city of oescus received status of roman colony after legionary garrison redeployed. fact these former danubian outposts had ceased frontier basis , in deep rear acted inducement urbanization , development.

not of dacia permanently occupied. permanently included in province, after post-trajanic evacuation of land across lower danube, lands extending danube inner arch of carpathian mountains, including transylvania, metaliferi mountains , oltenia.the roman province took form of excrescence north of danube, ill-defined limits, stretching danube northwards carpathians, , intended perhaps basis further expansion in eastern europe – which romans conceived more flattened , , closer ocean, was. defense of province entrusted single legion, xiii gemina, stationed @ apulum, functioned advanced guard could, in case of need, strike either west or east @ sarmatians living @ borders. therefore, indefensible character of province did not appear problem trajan, province conceived more sally-base further attacks. in absence of further roman expansion, value of province depended on roman overall strength: while rome strong, dacian salient instrument of military , diplomatic control on danubian lands; when rome weak, during crisis of third century, province became liability , abandoned.

trajan resettled dacia romans , annexed province of roman empire. aside enormous booty (over half million slaves, according john lydus), trajan s dacian campaigns benefited empire s finances through acquisition of dacia s gold mines, managed imperial procurator of equestrian rank (procurator aurariarum). on other hand, commercial agricultural exploitation on villa model, based on centralized management of huge landed estate single owner (fundus) poorly developed. therefore, use of slave labor in province seems have been relatively undeveloped, , epigraphic evidence points work in gold mines being conducted means of labor contracts (locatio conductio rei) , seasonal wage-earning.

the victory commemorated construction both of 102 cenotaph known tropaeum traiani in moesia, of later (113) trajan s column in rome, latter depicting in stone carved bas-reliefs dacian wars important moments.

annexation of nabataea

in 106, rabbel ii soter, 1 of rome s client kings, died. event might have prompted annexation of nabataean kingdom, manner , formal reasons annexation unclear. epigraphic evidence suggests military operation, forces syria , egypt. known 107, roman legions stationed in area around petra , bostra, shown papyrus found in egypt. furthest south romans occupied (or, better, garrisoned, adopting policy of having garrisons @ key points in desert) hegra, on 300 kilometres (190 mi) south-west of petra. empire gained became province of arabia petraea (modern southern jordan , north west saudi arabia). nabataea last client kingdom in asia west of euphrates, annexation meant entire roman east had been provincialized, completing trend towards direct rule had begun under flavians.

period of peace: public buildings , festivities

tabula traiana near trajan s bridge in Đerdap national park, serbia

for next 7 years, trajan ruled civilian emperor, same acclaim before. during time corresponded pliny younger on subject of how deal christians of pontus, telling pliny continue persecute christians not accept anonymous denounciations in interests of justice of spirit of age . people admitted being christians , refused recant, however, executed obstinacy when non-citizens, , sent rome trial if roman citizens.

trajan built several new buildings, monuments , roads in italia , native hispania. magnificent complex in rome raised commemorate victories in dacia (and largely financed campaign s loot) – consisting of forum, trajan s column, , trajan s market still stands in rome today. prolific builder of triumphal arches, many of survive, , rebuilder of roads (via traiana , via traiana nova).

one of trajan s notable acts during period hosting of three-month gladiatorial festival in great colosseum in rome (the precise date unknown). combining chariot racing, beast fights , close-quarters gladiatorial bloodshed, gory spectacle reputedly left 11,000 dead (mostly slaves , criminals, not mention thousands of ferocious beasts killed alongside them) , attracted total of 5 million spectators on course of festival. care bestowed trajan on managing of such public spectacles led orator fronto state approvingly trajan had paid equal attention entertainments serious issues. fronto concluded neglect of serious matters can cause greater damage, neglect of amusements greater discontent . fronto added, amusements means assure general acquiescence of populace, while more serious issue of corn dole aimed @ individuals.

devaluation of currency

in 107 trajan devalued roman currency. decreased silver purity of denarius 93.5% 89% – the actual silver weight dropping 3.04 grams 2.88 grams. devaluation, coupled massive amount of gold , silver carried off after trajan s dacian wars, allowed emperor mint larger quantity of denarii predecessors. also, trajan withdrew circulation silver denarii minted before previous devaluation achieved nero, allows thinking trajan s devaluation had political ends, such allowing increased civil , military spending.

the alimenta

another important act formalisation of alimenta, welfare program helped orphans , poor children throughout italy. provided general funds, food , subsidized education. program supported out of dacian war booty, , later combination of estate taxes , philanthropy. in general terms, scheme functioned means of mortgages on italian farms (fundi), through registered landowners received lump sum imperial treasure, being in return expected pay yearly given proportion of loan maintenance of alimentary fund.

although system documented in literary sources , contemporary epigraphy, precise aims controversial , have generated considerable dispute among modern scholars, actual aims , scope piece of welfare policy. assumed program intended bolster citizen numbers in italy, following provisions of augustus moral legislation (lex julia) favoring procreation on moral grounds – something openly acknowledged pliny. nevertheless, reproductive aim anachronistic, based on view of roman empire centered on rome , italy, purely italian manpower base, both increasingly no longer case. outdated stance confirmed pliny when wrote recipients of alimenta supposed people barracks , tribes future soldiers , electors – 2 roles ill-fitted contemporary reality of empire stretching across entire mediterranean , ruled autocrat. fact scheme restricted italy suggests might have been conceived form of political privilege accorded original heartland of empire. according french historian paul petit, alimenta should seen part of set of measures aimed towards economic recovery of italy. finley, however, thinks otherwise: in view, whole scheme had chief aim artificial bolstering of political weight of italy, seen, example, in stricture – heartily praised pliny – laid down trajan ordered senators, when provinces, have @ least third of landed estates in italian territory, unseemly [...] [they] should treat rome , italy not native land, mere inn or lodging house .

interesting , unique scheme was, remained small.the fact subsidized means of interest payments on loans made landowners – mostly large ones, assumed more reliable debtors – actually benefited low percentage of potential welfare recipients (paul veyne has assumed that, in city of veleia, 1 child out of ten actual beneficiary) – thus idea, put forth moses i. finley, grandiose aims amounted @ form of random charity, additional imperial benevolence. reliance solely on loans great landowners (in veleia, 17 square kilometers mortgaged) restricted funding sources further. seems mortgage scheme way of making local notables participate, albeit in lesser role, in imperial benevolence. possible scheme was, extent, forced loan, tied unwilling landowners imperial treasure in order make them supply funds civic expenses. same notion of exploiting private – and supposedly more efficient – management of landed estate means obtain public revenue employed other similar , lesser schemes. senator pliny had endowed city of comum perpetual right annual charge (vectigal) of thirty thousand sestertii on 1 of estates in perpetuity after death (pliny s heirs or subsequent purchaser of estate being liable), rent obtained contributing maintenance of pliny s semi-private charitable foundation. such scheme, pliny hoped engender enthusiasm among fellow landowners such philanthropic ventures. trajan did likewise, since willingness slippery commodity , finley suspects that, in order ensure italian landowners acceptance of burden of borrowing alimenta fund, moral pressure exerted.

in short, scheme limited in scope not have fulfilled coherent economic or demographic purpose – it usual ancient charity, directed, not towards poor, community (in case, italian cities) whole. fact alimenta begun during , after dacian wars , twice came on heels of distribution of money population of rome (congiaria) following dacian triumphs, points towards purely charitable motive. fact alimenta restricted italy highlights ideology behind it: reaffirm notion of roman empire italian overlordship. given limited scope, plan was, nevertheless, successful in lasted century , half: last known official in charge of attested during reign of aurelian.

war against parthia

aureus issued trajan celebrate conquest of parthia



the extent of roman empire under trajan (117)



anatolia, western caucasus , northern levant under trajan

in 113, trajan embarked on last campaign, provoked parthia s decision put unacceptable king on throne of armenia, kingdom on 2 great empires had shared hegemony since time of nero fifty years earlier. s noteworthy, trajan, in syria in 113, consistently refused accept diplomatic approaches parthians in order settle armenian imbroglio peacefully.

as surviving literary accounts of trajan s parthian war fragmentary , scattered, difficult assign them proper context, has led long-running controversy precise happenings , ultimate aims. many modern historians consider trajan s decision wage war against parthia might have had economic motives: after trajan s annexation of arabia, built new road, via traiana nova, went bostra aila on red sea. meant charax on persian gulf sole remaining western terminus of indian trade route outside direct roman control, , such control important in order lower import prices , limit supposed drain of precious metals created deficit in roman trade far east.

that charax traded roman empire, there can no doubt, actual connections merchants palmyra @ period documented in contemporary palmyrene epigraph, tells of various palmyrene citizens honoured holding office in charax. also, charax s rulers domains @ time possibly included bahrain islands (where palmyrene citizen held office, shortly after trajan s death, satrap – but then, appointment made parthian king of charax) offered possibility of extending roman hegemony persian gulf itself. rationale behind trajan s campaign, in case, 1 of breaking down system of far eastern trade through small semitic ( arab ) cities under parthia s control , put under roman control instead.

in dacian conquests, trajan had resorted syrian auxiliary units, veterans, along syrian traders, had important role in subsequent colonization of dacia. had recruited palmyrene units army, including camel unit, therefore apparently procuring palmyrene support ultimate goal of annexing charax. has been ventured that, when earlier in campaign trajan annexed armenia, bound annex whole of mesopotamia lest parthians interrupt flux of trade persian gulf and/or foment trouble @ roman frontier on danube.

other historians reject these motives, supposed parthian control on maritime far eastern trade route was, @ best, conjectural , based on selective reading of chinese sources – trade land through parthia seems have been unhampered parthian authorities , left solely devices of private enterprise. commercial activity in second century mesopotamia seems have been general phenomenon, shared many peoples within , without roman empire, no sign of concerted imperial policy towards it. in case of alimenta, scholars moses finley , paul veyne have considered whole idea of foreign trade policy behind trajan s war anachronistic: according them, sole roman concern far eastern luxuries trade – besides collecting toll taxes , customs – was moral , involved frowning upon softness of luxuries, no economic policy. in absence of conclusive evidence, trade between rome , india might have been far more balanced, in terms of quantities of precious metals exchanged: 1 of our sources notion of roman gold drain – pliny s younger s uncle pliny elder – had earlier described gangetic plains 1 of gold sources roman empire. therefore, fact that, in controversial book on ancient economy, finley considers trajan s badly miscalculated , expensive assault on parthia example of many roman commercial wars had in common fact of existing in books of modern historians.

trajan, palladium , white marble statue @ colosseum in rome, late 1st century ad

the alternative view see campaign triggered lure of territorial annexation , prestige, sole motive ascribed cassius dio. far territorial conquest involved tax-collecting, of 25% tax levied on goods entering roman empire, tetarte, 1 can trajan s parthian war had economic motive. also, there propaganda value of eastern conquest emulate, in roman fashion, of alexander great. fact emissaries kushan empire might have attended commemorative ceremonies dacian war may have kindled in greco-roman intellectuals plutarch – who wrote 70,000 roman soldiers being necessary conquest of india – as in trajan s closer associates, speculative dreams booty obtained reproducing macedonian eastern conquests. there trajan s idea use ambitious blueprint of conquests way emphasize quasi-divine status, such cultivated association, in coins , monuments, hercules. also, possible attachment of trajan expansionist policy supported powerful circle of conservative senators hispania committed policy of imperial expansion, first among them being all-powerful licinius sura. finally, 1 can explain campaign fact that, romans, empire in principle unlimited, , trajan took advantage of opportunity make idea , reality coincide.

finally, there other modern historians think trajan s original aims purely military , quite modest: assure more defensible eastern frontier roman empire, crossing northern mesopotamia along course of khabur river in order offer cover roman armenia. interpretation backed fact subsequent roman wars against parthia aim @ establishing roman presence deep parthia itself.

the campaign planned in advance: ten legions concentrated in eastern theater; since 111, correspondence of pliny younger witnesses fact provincial authorities in bithynia had organize supplies passing troops, , local city councils , individual members had shoulder part of increased expenses supplying troops themselves. intended campaign, therefore, immensely costly beginning.

trajan marched first on armenia, deposed parthian-appointed king (who afterwards murdered while kept in custody of roman troops in unclear incident, later described fronto breach of roman faith) , annexed roman empire province, receiving in passing acknowledgement of roman hegemony various tribes in caucasus , on eastern coast of black sea – a process kept him busy until end of 114. @ same time, roman column under legate lusius quietus – an outstanding cavalry general had signaled himself during dacian wars commanding unit native mauretania – crossed araxes river armenia media atropatene , land of mardians (present-day ghilan). possible quietus campaign had goal extending of newer, more defensible roman border eastwards towards caspian sea , northwards foothills of caucasus. newer, more rational frontier, depended, however, on increased, permanent roman presence east of euphrates.

the chronology of subsequent events uncertain, believed in 115 trajan launched mesopotamian campaign, marching down towards taurus mountains in order consolidate territory between tigris , euphrates rivers. placed permanent garrisons along way secure territory. while trajan moved west east, lusius quietus moved army caspian sea towards west, both armies performing successful pincer movement, apparent result establish roman presence parthian empire proper, trajan taking northern mesopotamian cities of nisibis , batnae , organizing province of mesopotamia, including kingdom of osrhoene – where king abgaros vii submitted trajan publicly – as roman protectorate.this process seems have been completed @ beginning of 116, when coins issued announcing armenia , mesopotamia had been put under authority of roman people. area between khabur river , mountains around singara seems have been considered new frontier, , such received road surrounded fortresses.

sestertius issued senate (sc, senatus consultus) during 116 commemorate trajan s parthian victories. obverse: bust of trajan, laurel crown. caption: trajan s titulature. reverse: trajan standing between prostrate allegories of armenia (crowned tiara) , rivers tigris & euphrates. caption: armenia & mesopotamia put under authority of roman people .



bronze bust of trajan in later years, museum of anatolian civilizations, ankara, turkey

after wintering in antioch during 115/116  – and, according literary sources, barely escaping violent earthquake claimed life of 1 of consuls, m. pedo virgilianus – trajan again took field in 116, view conquest of whole of mesopotamia, overambitious goal backfired on results of entire campaign. according modern historians, aim of campaign of 116 achieve preemptive demonstration aiming not toward conquest of parthia, tighter roman control on eastern trade route. however, overall scarcity of manpower roman military establishment meant campaign doomed start. noteworthy no new legions raised trajan before parthian campaign, maybe because sources of new citizen recruits over-exploited.

as far sources allow description of campaign, seems 1 roman division crossed tigris adiabene, sweeping south , capturing adenystrae; second followed river south, capturing babylon; trajan himself sailed down euphrates dura-europos – where triumphal arch erected in honour – through ozogardana, erected tribunal still seen @ time of julian apostate s campaigns in same area. having come narrow strip of land between euphrates , tigris, dragged fleet overland tigris, capturing seleucia , parthian capital of ctesiphon.

he continued southward persian gulf, when, after escaping fleet tidal bore on tigris, received submission of athambelus, ruler of charax. declared babylon new province of empire , had statue erected on shore of persian gulf, after sent senate laurelled letter declaring war @ close , bemoaning old go on further , repeat conquests of alexander great. since charax de facto independent kingdom connections palmyra described above, trajan s bid persian gulf may have coincided palmyrene interests in region. hypothesis rulers of charax had expansionist designs on parthian babylon, giving them rationale alliance trajan. parthian summer capital of susa apparently occupied romans.

according late literary sources (not backed numismatic or inscriptional evidence) province of assyria proclaimed, apparently covering territory of adiabene. measures seem have been considered regarding fiscal administration of indian trade – or payment of customs (portoria) on goods traded on euphrates , tigris. possible streamlining of administration of newly conquered lands according standard pattern of roman provincial administration in tax collecting, requisitions , handling of local potentates prerogatives, triggered later resistance against trajan.

according modern historians, trajan might have busied himself during stay on persian gulf ordering raids on parthian coasts, probing extending roman suzerainty on mountaineer tribes holding passes across zagros mountains iranian plateau eastward, establishing sort of direct contact between rome , kushan empire. no attempt made expand iranian plateau itself, roman army, relative weakness in cavalry, have been @ disadvantage.

a coin of trajan, found coins of kushan ruler kanishka, @ ahin posh buddhist monastery, afghanistan

however, trajan left persian gulf babylon – where intended offer sacrifice alexander in house had died in 323 bc – a sudden outburst of parthian resistance, led nephew of parthian king osroes i, sanatruces.

sanatruces, had retained cavalry force, possibly strengthened addition of saka archers, imperiled roman positions in mesopotamia , armenia, trajan sought deal forsaking direct roman rule in parthia proper, @ least partially.

trajan sent 2 armies towards northern mesopotamia: first, under lusius quietus, recovered nisibis , edessa rebels, having king abgarus deposed , killed in process, quietus earning right receive honors of senator of praetorian rank (adlectus inter praetorios). second army, however, under appius maximus santra (probably governor of macedonia) defeated , santra killed. later in 116, trajan, assistance of quietus , 2 other legates, marcus erucius clarus , tiberius julius alexander julianus, defeated parthian army in battle sanatruces killed (possibly assistance of osroes son , sanatruces cousin, parthamaspates, whom trajan wooed successfully). after re-taking , burning seleucia, trajan formally deposed osroes, putting parthamaspates on throne client ruler . event commemorated in coin presented reduction of parthia client kingdom status: rex parthis datus, king given parthians . done, trajan retreated north in order retain of new provinces of armenia – where had accepted armistice in exchange surrendering part of territory sanatruces son vologeses , mesopotamia.

bust of trajan, glyptothek, munich

it @ point trajan s health started fail him. fortress city of hatra, on tigris in rear, continued hold out against repeated roman assaults. present @ siege, , possible suffered heat stroke while in blazing heat.

shortly afterwards, jews inside eastern roman empire, in egypt, cyprus , cyrene – this last province being original trouble hotspot – rose in outburst of religious rebellion against local pagans, widespread rebellion being afterwards named kitos war. rebellion flared among jewish communities of northern mesopotamia, part of general reaction against roman occupation. trajan forced withdraw army in order put down revolts. saw withdrawal temporary setback, destined never command army in field again, turning eastern armies on lusius quietus, meanwhile (early 117) had been made governor of judaea , might have had deal earlier kind of jewish unrest in province. quietus discharged commissions successfully, war afterward named after him – kitus being corruption of quietus. whether or not kitos war theater included judea proper, or jewish eastern diaspora, remains doubtful in absence of clear epigraphic , archaeological evidence. there increased roman military presence in judea @ time

quietus promised consulate in following year (118) victories, killed before occur, during bloody purge opened hadrian s reign, in quietus , 3 other former consuls sentenced death after being tried on vague charge of conspiracy (secret) court of praetorian prefect attianus. has been theorized quietus , colleagues executed on hadrian s direct orders, fear of popular standing army , close connections trajan.

in contrast, next prominent roman figure in charge of repression of jewish revolt, equestrian quintus marcius turbo, had dealt rebel leader cyrene, loukuas, retained hadrian s trust, becoming praetorian prefect. apparently, hadrian not allow continued existence alongside him of group of independent-minded senatorial generals inherited predecessor. 4 consulars senators of highest standing , such regarded able take imperial power (capaces imperii), hadrian seems have decided on preemptive strike against these prospective rivals.