War against Parthia Trajan

aureus issued trajan celebrate conquest of parthia



the extent of roman empire under trajan (117)



anatolia, western caucasus , northern levant under trajan

in 113, trajan embarked on last campaign, provoked parthia s decision put unacceptable king on throne of armenia, kingdom on 2 great empires had shared hegemony since time of nero fifty years earlier. s noteworthy, trajan, in syria in 113, consistently refused accept diplomatic approaches parthians in order settle armenian imbroglio peacefully.

as surviving literary accounts of trajan s parthian war fragmentary , scattered, difficult assign them proper context, has led long-running controversy precise happenings , ultimate aims. many modern historians consider trajan s decision wage war against parthia might have had economic motives: after trajan s annexation of arabia, built new road, via traiana nova, went bostra aila on red sea. meant charax on persian gulf sole remaining western terminus of indian trade route outside direct roman control, , such control important in order lower import prices , limit supposed drain of precious metals created deficit in roman trade far east.

that charax traded roman empire, there can no doubt, actual connections merchants palmyra @ period documented in contemporary palmyrene epigraph, tells of various palmyrene citizens honoured holding office in charax. also, charax s rulers domains @ time possibly included bahrain islands (where palmyrene citizen held office, shortly after trajan s death, satrap – but then, appointment made parthian king of charax) offered possibility of extending roman hegemony persian gulf itself. rationale behind trajan s campaign, in case, 1 of breaking down system of far eastern trade through small semitic ( arab ) cities under parthia s control , put under roman control instead.

in dacian conquests, trajan had resorted syrian auxiliary units, veterans, along syrian traders, had important role in subsequent colonization of dacia. had recruited palmyrene units army, including camel unit, therefore apparently procuring palmyrene support ultimate goal of annexing charax. has been ventured that, when earlier in campaign trajan annexed armenia, bound annex whole of mesopotamia lest parthians interrupt flux of trade persian gulf and/or foment trouble @ roman frontier on danube.

other historians reject these motives, supposed parthian control on maritime far eastern trade route was, @ best, conjectural , based on selective reading of chinese sources – trade land through parthia seems have been unhampered parthian authorities , left solely devices of private enterprise. commercial activity in second century mesopotamia seems have been general phenomenon, shared many peoples within , without roman empire, no sign of concerted imperial policy towards it. in case of alimenta, scholars moses finley , paul veyne have considered whole idea of foreign trade policy behind trajan s war anachronistic: according them, sole roman concern far eastern luxuries trade – besides collecting toll taxes , customs – was moral , involved frowning upon softness of luxuries, no economic policy. in absence of conclusive evidence, trade between rome , india might have been far more balanced, in terms of quantities of precious metals exchanged: 1 of our sources notion of roman gold drain – pliny s younger s uncle pliny elder – had earlier described gangetic plains 1 of gold sources roman empire. therefore, fact that, in controversial book on ancient economy, finley considers trajan s badly miscalculated , expensive assault on parthia example of many roman commercial wars had in common fact of existing in books of modern historians.

trajan, palladium , white marble statue @ colosseum in rome, late 1st century ad

the alternative view see campaign triggered lure of territorial annexation , prestige, sole motive ascribed cassius dio. far territorial conquest involved tax-collecting, of 25% tax levied on goods entering roman empire, tetarte, 1 can trajan s parthian war had economic motive. also, there propaganda value of eastern conquest emulate, in roman fashion, of alexander great. fact emissaries kushan empire might have attended commemorative ceremonies dacian war may have kindled in greco-roman intellectuals plutarch – who wrote 70,000 roman soldiers being necessary conquest of india – as in trajan s closer associates, speculative dreams booty obtained reproducing macedonian eastern conquests. there trajan s idea use ambitious blueprint of conquests way emphasize quasi-divine status, such cultivated association, in coins , monuments, hercules. also, possible attachment of trajan expansionist policy supported powerful circle of conservative senators hispania committed policy of imperial expansion, first among them being all-powerful licinius sura. finally, 1 can explain campaign fact that, romans, empire in principle unlimited, , trajan took advantage of opportunity make idea , reality coincide.

finally, there other modern historians think trajan s original aims purely military , quite modest: assure more defensible eastern frontier roman empire, crossing northern mesopotamia along course of khabur river in order offer cover roman armenia. interpretation backed fact subsequent roman wars against parthia aim @ establishing roman presence deep parthia itself.

the campaign planned in advance: ten legions concentrated in eastern theater; since 111, correspondence of pliny younger witnesses fact provincial authorities in bithynia had organize supplies passing troops, , local city councils , individual members had shoulder part of increased expenses supplying troops themselves. intended campaign, therefore, immensely costly beginning.

trajan marched first on armenia, deposed parthian-appointed king (who afterwards murdered while kept in custody of roman troops in unclear incident, later described fronto breach of roman faith) , annexed roman empire province, receiving in passing acknowledgement of roman hegemony various tribes in caucasus , on eastern coast of black sea – a process kept him busy until end of 114. @ same time, roman column under legate lusius quietus – an outstanding cavalry general had signaled himself during dacian wars commanding unit native mauretania – crossed araxes river armenia media atropatene , land of mardians (present-day ghilan). possible quietus campaign had goal extending of newer, more defensible roman border eastwards towards caspian sea , northwards foothills of caucasus. newer, more rational frontier, depended, however, on increased, permanent roman presence east of euphrates.

the chronology of subsequent events uncertain, believed in 115 trajan launched mesopotamian campaign, marching down towards taurus mountains in order consolidate territory between tigris , euphrates rivers. placed permanent garrisons along way secure territory. while trajan moved west east, lusius quietus moved army caspian sea towards west, both armies performing successful pincer movement, apparent result establish roman presence parthian empire proper, trajan taking northern mesopotamian cities of nisibis , batnae , organizing province of mesopotamia, including kingdom of osrhoene – where king abgaros vii submitted trajan publicly – as roman protectorate.this process seems have been completed @ beginning of 116, when coins issued announcing armenia , mesopotamia had been put under authority of roman people. area between khabur river , mountains around singara seems have been considered new frontier, , such received road surrounded fortresses.

sestertius issued senate (sc, senatus consultus) during 116 commemorate trajan s parthian victories. obverse: bust of trajan, laurel crown. caption: trajan s titulature. reverse: trajan standing between prostrate allegories of armenia (crowned tiara) , rivers tigris & euphrates. caption: armenia & mesopotamia put under authority of roman people .



bronze bust of trajan in later years, museum of anatolian civilizations, ankara, turkey

after wintering in antioch during 115/116  – and, according literary sources, barely escaping violent earthquake claimed life of 1 of consuls, m. pedo virgilianus – trajan again took field in 116, view conquest of whole of mesopotamia, overambitious goal backfired on results of entire campaign. according modern historians, aim of campaign of 116 achieve preemptive demonstration aiming not toward conquest of parthia, tighter roman control on eastern trade route. however, overall scarcity of manpower roman military establishment meant campaign doomed start. noteworthy no new legions raised trajan before parthian campaign, maybe because sources of new citizen recruits over-exploited.

as far sources allow description of campaign, seems 1 roman division crossed tigris adiabene, sweeping south , capturing adenystrae; second followed river south, capturing babylon; trajan himself sailed down euphrates dura-europos – where triumphal arch erected in honour – through ozogardana, erected tribunal still seen @ time of julian apostate s campaigns in same area. having come narrow strip of land between euphrates , tigris, dragged fleet overland tigris, capturing seleucia , parthian capital of ctesiphon.

he continued southward persian gulf, when, after escaping fleet tidal bore on tigris, received submission of athambelus, ruler of charax. declared babylon new province of empire , had statue erected on shore of persian gulf, after sent senate laurelled letter declaring war @ close , bemoaning old go on further , repeat conquests of alexander great. since charax de facto independent kingdom connections palmyra described above, trajan s bid persian gulf may have coincided palmyrene interests in region. hypothesis rulers of charax had expansionist designs on parthian babylon, giving them rationale alliance trajan. parthian summer capital of susa apparently occupied romans.

according late literary sources (not backed numismatic or inscriptional evidence) province of assyria proclaimed, apparently covering territory of adiabene. measures seem have been considered regarding fiscal administration of indian trade – or payment of customs (portoria) on goods traded on euphrates , tigris. possible streamlining of administration of newly conquered lands according standard pattern of roman provincial administration in tax collecting, requisitions , handling of local potentates prerogatives, triggered later resistance against trajan.

according modern historians, trajan might have busied himself during stay on persian gulf ordering raids on parthian coasts, probing extending roman suzerainty on mountaineer tribes holding passes across zagros mountains iranian plateau eastward, establishing sort of direct contact between rome , kushan empire. no attempt made expand iranian plateau itself, roman army, relative weakness in cavalry, have been @ disadvantage.

a coin of trajan, found coins of kushan ruler kanishka, @ ahin posh buddhist monastery, afghanistan

however, trajan left persian gulf babylon – where intended offer sacrifice alexander in house had died in 323 bc – a sudden outburst of parthian resistance, led nephew of parthian king osroes i, sanatruces.

sanatruces, had retained cavalry force, possibly strengthened addition of saka archers, imperiled roman positions in mesopotamia , armenia, trajan sought deal forsaking direct roman rule in parthia proper, @ least partially.

trajan sent 2 armies towards northern mesopotamia: first, under lusius quietus, recovered nisibis , edessa rebels, having king abgarus deposed , killed in process, quietus earning right receive honors of senator of praetorian rank (adlectus inter praetorios). second army, however, under appius maximus santra (probably governor of macedonia) defeated , santra killed. later in 116, trajan, assistance of quietus , 2 other legates, marcus erucius clarus , tiberius julius alexander julianus, defeated parthian army in battle sanatruces killed (possibly assistance of osroes son , sanatruces cousin, parthamaspates, whom trajan wooed successfully). after re-taking , burning seleucia, trajan formally deposed osroes, putting parthamaspates on throne client ruler . event commemorated in coin presented reduction of parthia client kingdom status: rex parthis datus, king given parthians . done, trajan retreated north in order retain of new provinces of armenia – where had accepted armistice in exchange surrendering part of territory sanatruces son vologeses , mesopotamia.

bust of trajan, glyptothek, munich

it @ point trajan s health started fail him. fortress city of hatra, on tigris in rear, continued hold out against repeated roman assaults. present @ siege, , possible suffered heat stroke while in blazing heat.

shortly afterwards, jews inside eastern roman empire, in egypt, cyprus , cyrene – this last province being original trouble hotspot – rose in outburst of religious rebellion against local pagans, widespread rebellion being afterwards named kitos war. rebellion flared among jewish communities of northern mesopotamia, part of general reaction against roman occupation. trajan forced withdraw army in order put down revolts. saw withdrawal temporary setback, destined never command army in field again, turning eastern armies on lusius quietus, meanwhile (early 117) had been made governor of judaea , might have had deal earlier kind of jewish unrest in province. quietus discharged commissions successfully, war afterward named after him – kitus being corruption of quietus. whether or not kitos war theater included judea proper, or jewish eastern diaspora, remains doubtful in absence of clear epigraphic , archaeological evidence. there increased roman military presence in judea @ time

quietus promised consulate in following year (118) victories, killed before occur, during bloody purge opened hadrian s reign, in quietus , 3 other former consuls sentenced death after being tried on vague charge of conspiracy (secret) court of praetorian prefect attianus. has been theorized quietus , colleagues executed on hadrian s direct orders, fear of popular standing army , close connections trajan.

in contrast, next prominent roman figure in charge of repression of jewish revolt, equestrian quintus marcius turbo, had dealt rebel leader cyrene, loukuas, retained hadrian s trust, becoming praetorian prefect. apparently, hadrian not allow continued existence alongside him of group of independent-minded senatorial generals inherited predecessor. 4 consulars senators of highest standing , such regarded able take imperial power (capaces imperii), hadrian seems have decided on preemptive strike against these prospective rivals.