Thought Antonio Gramsci

1 thought

1.1 hegemony
1.2 intellectuals , education
1.3 state , civil society
1.4 historicism
1.5 critique of economism
1.6 critique of materialism

thought

gramsci 1 of important marxist thinkers of 20th century, , particularly key thinker in development of western marxism. wrote more 30 notebooks , 3000 pages of history , analysis during imprisonment. these writings, known prison notebooks, contain gramsci s tracing of italian history , nationalism, ideas in marxist theory, critical theory , educational theory associated name, such as:

cultural hegemony means of maintaining , legitimising capitalist state;
the need popular workers education encourage development of intellectuals working class;
an analysis of modern capitalist state distinguishes between political society, dominates directly , coercively, , civil society, leadership constituted means of consent;
absolute historicism ;
a critique of economic determinism opposes fatalistic interpretations of marxism;
a critique of pre-marxist philosophical materialism.

hegemony

hegemony term used marxists such vladimir lenin denote political leadership of working-class in democratic revolution. gramsci expanded concept, developing acute analysis of how ruling capitalist class – bourgeoisie – establishes , maintains control.

orthodox marxism had predicted socialist revolution inevitable in capitalist societies. 20th century, no such revolution had occurred in advanced nations. capitalism, seemed, more entrenched ever. capitalism, gramsci suggested, maintained control not through violence , political , economic coercion, through ideology. bourgeoisie developed hegemonic culture, propagated own values , norms became common sense values of all. people in working-class (and other classes) identified own good of bourgeoisie, , helped maintain status quo rather revolting.

to counter notion bourgeois values represented natural or normal values society, working class needed develop culture of own. lenin held culture ancillary political objectives, gramsci fundamental attainment of power cultural hegemony achieved first. in gramsci s view, class cannot dominate in modern conditions merely advancing own narrow economic interests; neither can dominate purely through force , coercion. rather, must exert intellectual , moral leadership, , make alliances , compromises variety of forces. gramsci calls union of social forces historic bloc , taking term georges sorel. bloc forms basis of consent social order, produces , re-produces hegemony of dominant class through nexus of institutions, social relations, , ideas. in way, gramsci s theory emphasized importance of political , ideological superstructure in both maintaining , fracturing relations of economic base.

gramsci stated bourgeois cultural values tied folklore, popular culture , religion, , therefore of analysis of hegemonic culture aimed @ these. impressed influence roman catholicism had , care church had taken prevent excessive gap developing between religion of learned , of less educated. gramsci saw marxism marriage of purely intellectual critique of religion found in renaissance humanism , elements of reformation had appealed masses. gramsci, marxism supersede religion if met people s spiritual needs, , people have think of expression of own experience.

for gramsci, hegemonic dominance relied on consented coercion, , in crisis of authority masks of consent slip away, revealing fist of force.

intellectuals , education

gramsci gave thought role of intellectuals in society. famously, stated men intellectuals, in have intellectual , rational faculties, not men have social function of intellectuals. saw modern intellectuals not talkers, practically-minded directors , organisers produced hegemony through ideological apparatuses such education , media. furthermore, distinguished between traditional intelligentsia sees (wrongly) class apart society, , thinking groups every class produces own ranks organically . such organic intellectuals not describe social life in accordance scientific rules, instead articulate, through language of culture, feelings , experiences masses not express themselves. gramsci, duty of organic intellectuals speak obscured precepts of folk wisdom, or common sense (senso comune), of respective politic spheres. these intellectuals represent excluded social groups of society, gramsci referred subaltern_(postcolonialism).

in line gramsci s theories of hegemonic power, argued capitalist power needed challenged building counter-hegemony. meant that, part of war of position, organic intellectuals , others within working-class, need develop alternative values , alternative ideology in contrast bourgeois ideology. argued reason had not needed happen in russia because russian ruling-class did not have genuine hegemonic power. bolsheviks able see through war of manoeuvre (the 1917 revolution), relatively easily, because ruling-class hegemony had never been achieved. believed final war of manoeuvre possible, in developed , advanced capitalist societies, when war of position had been won organic intellectuals , working-class building counter-hegemony.

the need create working-class culture , counter-hegemony relates gramsci s call kind of education develop working-class intellectuals, task not introduce marxist ideology consciousness of proletariat set of foreign notions, renovate existing intellectual activity of masses , make natively critical of status quo. ideas education system purpose correspond notion of critical pedagogy , popular education theorized , practised in later decades paulo freire in brazil, , have in common thought of frantz fanon. reason, partisans of adult , popular education consider gramsci important voice day.

state , civil society

gramsci s theory of hegemony tied conception of capitalist state. gramsci not understand state in narrow sense of government. instead, divides between political society (the police, army, legal system, etc.) – arena of political institutions , legal constitutional control – , civil society (the family, education system, trade unions, etc.) – commonly seen private or non-state sphere, mediating between state , economy. however, stresses division purely conceptual , 2 overlap in reality. gramsci claims capitalist state rules through force plus consent: political society realm of force , civil society realm of consent.

gramsci proffers under modern capitalism, bourgeoisie can maintain economic control allowing demands made trade unions , mass political parties within civil society met political sphere. thus, bourgeoisie engages in passive revolution going beyond immediate economic interests , allowing forms of hegemony change. gramsci posits movements such reformism , fascism, scientific management , assembly line methods of frederick taylor , henry ford, respectively, examples of this.

drawing machiavelli, argues modern prince – revolutionary party – force allow working-class develop organic intellectuals , alternative hegemony within civil society. gramsci, complex nature of modern civil society means war of position , carried out revolutionaries through political agitation, trade unions, advancement of proletarian culture, , other ways create opposing civil society necessary alongside war of manoeuvre – direct revolution – in order have successful revolution without danger of counter-revolution or degeneration.

despite claim lines between 2 may blurred, gramsci rejects state-worship results identifying political society civil society, done jacobins , fascists. believes proletariat s historical task create regulated society , defines withering away of state full development of civil society s ability regulate itself.

historicism

gramsci, marx, emphatic proponent of historicism. in gramsci s view, meaning derives relation between human practical activity (or praxis ) , objective historical , social processes of part. ideas cannot understood outside social , historical context, apart function , origin. concepts organise our knowledge of world not derive our relation things (to objective reality), rather social relations (economic, marx) between bearers of concepts. result, there no such thing unchanging human nature . furthermore, philosophy , science not reflect reality independent of man. rather, theory can said true when, in given historical situation, expresses real developmental trend of situation.

for majority of marxists, truth truth no matter when , known, , scientific knowledge (which included marxism) accumulated historically advance of truth in everyday sense. in view, marxism (or marxist theory of history , economics) did not belong illusory realm of superstructure because science. in contrast, gramsci believed marxism true in socially pragmatic sense: articulating class consciousness of proletariat, marxism expressed truth of times better other theory. anti-scientistic , anti-positivist stance indebted influence of benedetto croce. however, should underlined gramsci s absolute historicism broke croce s tendency secure metaphysical synthesis in historical destiny . though gramsci repudiates charge, historical account of truth has been criticised form of relativism.

critique of economism

in notable pre-prison article entitled revolution against das kapital , gramsci wrote october revolution in russia had invalidated idea socialist revolution had await full development of capitalist forces of production. reflected view marxism not determinist philosophy. principle of causal primacy of forces of production misconception of marxism. both economic changes , cultural changes expressions of basic historical process , , difficult sphere has primacy on other. belief, widespread within workers movement in earliest years, inevitably triumph due historical laws , was, in gramsci s view, product of historical circumstances of oppressed class restricted defensive action. fatalistic doctrine abandoned hindrance once working-class became able take initiative. because marxism philosophy of praxis , cannot rely on unseen historical laws agents of social change. history defined human praxis , therefore includes human will. nonetheless, will-power cannot achieve likes in given situation: when consciousness of working-class reaches stage of development necessary action, encounter historical circumstances cannot arbitrarily altered. however, not predetermined historical inevitability or destiny of several possible developments take place result.

his critique of economism extended practised syndicalists of italian trade unions. believed many trade unionists had settled reformist, gradualist approach in had refused struggle on political front in addition economic front. gramsci, ruling class can beyond own immediate economic interests reorganise forms of own hegemony, must working-class present own interests congruous universal advancement of society. while gramsci envisioned trade unions 1 organ of counter-hegemonic force in capitalist society, trade union leaders saw these organizations means improve conditions within existing structure. gramsci referred views of these trade unionists vulgar economism , equated covert reformism , liberalism.

critique of materialism

by virtue of belief human history , collective praxis determine whether philosophical question meaningful or not, gramsci s views run contrary metaphysical materialism , copy theory of perception advanced engels , lenin, though not explicitly state this. gramsci, marxism not deal reality exists in , itself, independent of humanity. concept of objective universe outside of human history , human praxis was, in view, analogous belief in god. gramsci defined objectivity in terms of universal intersubjectivity established in future communist society. natural history meaningful in relation human history. in view philosophical materialism resulted lack of critical thought, , not said oppose religious dogma , superstition. despite this, gramsci resigned himself existence of arguably cruder form of marxism. marxism philosophy proletariat, subaltern class, , expressed in form of popular superstition , common sense. nonetheless, necessary challenge ideologies of educated classes, , marxists must present philosophy in more sophisticated guise, , attempt genuinely understand opponents’ views.